गोलिक स्थिति को दर्शाता है; इसे संस्कृत शब्द सिंधु से लिया गया है और यह सिंधु नदी के इलाकों के व्यक्ति को संदर्भित करता है. इस्लाम एक एकेश्वरवादी धर्म है और एक इश्वर के अस्तित्व में विश्वास रखता है तथा मुहम्मद का अनुसरण करता है. यह भारत में सबसे बड़ा अल्पसंख्यक धर्म है. 2001 की जनगणना के अनुसार, भारत 138 मिलियन मुसलमानों[35] का घर है, जो कि इंडोनेशिया (210 मिलियन)[36] और पाकिस्तान (166 मिलियन) के बाद दुनिया की तीसरी सबसे बड़ी मुस्लिम आबादी है; जनसंख्या में उनका अनुपात 13.4% का है.[37] मुसलमान जम्मू-कश्मीर तथा लक्षद्वीप में बहुमत में हैं[38] और आंध्र प्रदेश, उत्तर प्रदेश, बिहार, पश्चिम बंगाल, असम और केरल जैसे राज्यों में भी वे काफी अधिक संख्या में पाए जाते हैं.[38][39] हालांकि, भारत में संप्रदाय आधारित कोई जनगणना नहीं की गयी है, लेकिन सूत्रों से पता लगता है कि सुन्नी इस्लाम[40] के अनुयायी सबसे अधिक हैं जबकि उनमे अल्पसंख्यक होने के बावजूद शिया मुसलमानों की संख्या काफी अधिक है. टाइम्स ऑफ इंडिया और डीएनए जैसे भारतीय सूत्रों के अनुसार 2005-2006 के मध्य में शिया लोगों की संख्या कुल मुस्लिम जनसंख्या के 25% से 31% के बीच थी; अर्थात 157,000,000 मुसलमानों में उनकी संख्या 40,000,000[41][41] से 50,000,000[42] के बीच थी.[43][44] 15 वीं या 16 वीं सदी के ताड़ के पत्ते का पांडुलिपि में सम्मिलित तमिल भाषा में ईसाई प्रार्थना का एक सेट. ईसाई धर्म एक एकेश्वरवादी धर्म है और नए टेस्टामेंट में प्रस्तुत यीशु के जीवन तथा उपदेशों पर आधारित है; यह भारत का तीसरा सबसे बड़ा धर्म है और ईसाईयों की संख्या कुल जनसंख्या का लगभग 2.3% है. भारत में ईसाई धर्म की शुरूआत का श्रेय सेंट थॉमस को दिया जाता है. वे मालाबार में 52 ई. में पहुंचे थे.[45][46][47] नागालैंड, मेघालय और मिजोरम में ईसाई लोग बहुमत में हैं और पूर्वोत्तर भारत, गोवा तथा केरल में भी उनकी संख्या काफी अधिक है. बौद्ध धर्म एक धार्मिक, अनीश्वरवादी धर्म तथा दर्शन (विचारधारा) है. बौद्ध धर्म के अनुयायी भारत के अरुणाचल प्रदेश राज्य तथा जम्मू-कश्मीर के लद्दाख क्षेत्र में बहुमत में हैं और सिक्किम में भी उनकी काफी बड़ी संख्या (40%) निवास करती है. लगभग 8 मिलियन बौद्ध भारत में रहते हैं, जो कि जनसंख्या का लगभग 0.8% है.[35] जैन धर्म एक अनीश्वरवादी धर्म तथा दार्शनिक प्रणाली है जिसका प्रारंभ भारत में लौह युग में हुआ था. जैनियों की आबादी भारत की जनसंख्या का 0.4% (लगभग 4.2 मिलियन) है और वे मुख्यतः राजस्थान, महाराष्ट्र, गुजरात और कर्नाटक जैसे राज्यों में केंद्रित हैं.[38] हालांकि जैन धर्म को आमतौर पर अनीश्वरवादी माना जाता है, पॉल डूंडास लिखते हैं, "हालांकि जैन धर्म को सृष्टि-रचयिता भगवान के अस्तित्व और उनके द्वारा मानवी कार्यों में हस्तक्षेप की संभावना को नकारने के सीमित अर्थ में नास्तिक माना जा सकता है, लेकिन इसके द्वारा प्रत्येक जीव के भीतर परमात्मा नामक एक ईश्वरीय अस्तित्व की संभावना को स्वीकारने, जिसे अक्सर 'भगवान' (उदाहरण, पृष्ठ 114-16) कहा जाता है, के गूढ़ अर्थ में आस्तिक धर्म की संज्ञा देनी चाहिए ".[48] जैकोबाइट सीरियन और्थोडौक्स चर्च, 1550 AD में स्थापित पॉल डूंडास लिखते हैं कि 19वीं सदी के अधिकांश ब्रिटिश विद्वानों को "जैन धर्म की स्वतंत्र प्रकृति तथा उत्पत्ति के विषय में कोई संशय नहीं था".[49] 1847 में एक विद्वान ने लिखा है कि जैन, पारसी, तथा सिक्ख जैसे धार्मिक अल्पसंख्यकों में "ब्राह्मणों की पूजा पद्धति से कुछ भी मिलता-जुलता नहीं था".[50] एक अन्य विद्वान ने 1874 में कहा कि जैनियों को हिंदू कानूनों के तहत नहीं लाया जा सकता क्योंकि "हिंदू शब्द का प्रयोग हिंदू कानून का मूल माने जाने वाले शास्त्रों के दायरे में आने वाले व्यक्तियों के लिए किया जाता है. यदि कोई व्यक्ति उस दायरे से बाहर है तो उसपर हिन्दू कानून लागू नहीं किया जा सकता है.[51] हालांकि उन्होंने यह अवश्य कहा कि, "भारत की एकदम शुरुआती जनगणनाओं से पता चलता है कि कई जैन लोग तथा अन्य धार्मिक समूहों के सदस्य स्वयं को वास्तव में हिंदू धर्म के ही एक प्रकार के रूप में देखते थे और, 1921 की पंजाब की जनगणना रिपोर्ट के अनुसार, 'जैनियों तथा सिखों की एक बड़ी संख्या द्वारा हिंदुओं से अलग वर्गीकृत किये जाने के प्रति अनिच्छा के कारण, उन व्यक्तियों को जैन-हिंदू तथा सिख-हिंदू के रूप में दर्ज किये जाने की अनुमति दे दी गयी".[52] उन्होंने माना कि "गणनाकारों के पूर्वाग्रह" ने जनगणना को अवश्य प्रभावित किया था. इसके अलावा वे कहते हैं कि "जैन-हिन्दू" शब्द एक दुर्भाग्यपूर्ण समझौता मात्र था".[53] सिक्ख धर्म की शुरुआत सोलहवीं शताब्दी में उत्तर भारत में नानक तथा उनके बाद आने वाले नौ अन्य गुरुओं के उपदेशों के फलस्वरूप हुई. 2001 तक भारत में 19.2 मिलियन सिक्ख थे. पंजाब सिक्खों का आध्यात्मिक घर है और एकमात्र ऐसा राज्य है जहां सिख बहुमत में हैं. सिक्खों की एक बड़ी संख्या पड़ोस के नई दिल्ली तथा हरियाणा राज्यों में भी रहती है. संटा कैटारीना के से कैथेड्रल कोचीन में परदेसी आराधनालय का अभ्यन्तर. 2001 की जनगणना के अनुसार पारसी (भारत में पारसी धर्म के अनुयायी) लोग भारत की कुल जनसंख्या का 0.006% हैं,[54] और अपेक्षाकृत रूप से मुंबई शहर तथा उसके आसपास ही केंद्रित हैं. भारत में पारसियों की संख्या लगभग 61,000 है और 2001 की जनगणना के अनुसार में मुख्यतः मुंबई के आसपास ही केंद्रित हैं. डोंयी-पोलो तथा महिमा जैसे कुछ आदिवासियों के धर्म भी भारत में मौजूद हैं. संथाल भी, संथाल लोगों द्वारा माने जाने वाले कई आदिवासी धर्मों में से एक है; संथाल लोगों की कुल संख्या लगभग 4 मिलियन है लेकिन इस धर्म को मानने वालों के संख्या मात्र 23,645 ही है. भारत में लगभग 2.2 मिलियन लोग बहाई आस्था के अनुयायी हैं, इस प्रकार यह विश्व में बहाई लोगों का सबसे बड़ा समुदाय है.[55] दक्षिण भारत में प्रचलित 'अय्यावाझी' को आधिकारिक तौर पर एक हिंदू संप्रदाय माना जाता है और जनगणना में उसके अनुयायियों की गिनती हिंदुओं के रूप में की है. आज भारतीय यहूदियों का समुदाय बहुत ही छोटा है. ऐतिहासिक रूप से भारत में काफी अधिक यहूदी रहा करते थे, जिनमें शामिल हैं, केरल के कोचीन यहूदी, महाराष्ट्र के बेन इस्राएल, और मुंबई के निकट बगदादी यहूदी. इसके अतिरिक्त, स्वतंत्रता के बाद से भारत में मुख्यतः दो परिवर्तित (प्रोसीलाईट) यहूदी समुदाय रह रहे हैं: मिजोरम, मणिपुर के नेई मेनाशे, तथा बेने एफ्राइम जिन्हें तेगुलू यहूदी भी कहा जाता है. भारतीय मूल के लगभग 95,000 यहूदियों में से भारत में अब 20,000 से भी कम बचे हैं. भारत के कुछ हिस्से इस्राइलियों में विशेष रूप से लोकप्रिय हैं और त्योहारों के मौसम में उनकी संख्या काफी बढ़ जाती है. 2001 की जनगणना में लगभग 0.07% लोगों ने अपने धर्म का खुलासा नहीं किया था. [संपादित करें] आंकड़े (सांख्यिकी) इन्हें भी देखें: Demographics of India 1909 में ब्रिटिश भारतीय साम्राज्य के मानचित्र, प्रचलित धर्म द्वारा छायांकित. साँचा:Crlfसाँचा:Crlf श्रीनगर, जम्मू और कश्मीर में एक मस्जिद में प्रार्थना कर रहे मुसलमान. भारत के धार्मिक समुदायों के आंकड़े निम्नलिखित हैं (2001 जनगणना): Religions of India[39]α[›]β[›]धर्म जनसंख्या प्रतिशत सभी धर्म 1,028,610,328 100.00% हिन्दू 827,578,868 80.5% मुसलमान 138,188,240 13.4% ईसाई 24,080,016 2.3% सिख 19,215,730 1.9% बौद्ध 7,955,207 0.8% जैन 4,225,053 0.4% बहाई 1,953,112 0.18% अन्य 4,686,588 0.32% धर्म का खुलासा नहीं किया 727,588 0.1% धार्मिक समूहों की विशेषताएंधार्मिक समूह जनसंख्या % विकास (1991-2001) लिंग अनुपात (कुल) साक्षरता (%) कार्य में भागीदारी (%) लिंग अनुपात (ग्रामीण) लिंग अनुपात (शहरी) लिंग अनुपात (बच्चे)ε[›] हिंदू 80.46% 20.3% 931 65.1% 40.4% 944 894 925 मुस्लिम 13.43% 36.0% 936 59.1% 31.3% 953 907 950 ईसाई 2.34% 22.6% 1009 80.3% 39.7% 1001 1026 964 सिख 1.87% 18.2% 893 69.4% 37.7% 895 886 786 बौद्ध 0.77% 18.2% 953 72.7% 40.6% 958 944 942 जैन 0.41% 26.0% 940 94.1% 32.9% 937 941 870 एनिमिस्ट, अन्य 0.65% 103.1% 992 47.0% 48.4% 995 966 976 [संपादित करें] कानून मुख्य लेख : Constitution of India, Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India, Secularism in India, और Indian religion#Status in the Republic of India भारत के संविधान की प्रस्तावना में भारत को एक "संप्रभु समाजवादी धर्मनिरपेक्ष लोकतांत्रिक गणतंत्र" घोषित किया गया है. प्रस्तावना में धर्मनिरपेक्ष शब्द को 1976 में बयालीसवें संशोधन अधिनियम द्वारा डाला गया था. यह सभी धर्मों के प्रति सहनशीलता और समान व्यवहार को बढ़ावा देता है. भारत राज्य का कोई आधिकारिक धर्म नहीं है; यह किसी भी धर्म का पालन करने, उपदेश देने, और प्रचार करने के अधिकार को प्रदान करता है. किसी भी सरकार समर्थित स्कूल में कोई धार्मिक अनुदेश नहीं दिया जाता है. एस.आर. बोम्मई बनाम भारत संघ मामले में भारत की सर्वोच्च न्यायलय ने माना कि धर्मनिरपेक्षता भारतीय संविधान का एक अभिन्न अंग है.[56] भारतीय संविधान के अनुसार धार्मिक स्वतंत्रता का अधिकार एक मौलिक अधिकार है. संविधान एक दिशासूचक सिद्धांत (डाइरेक्टिव प्रिंसिपल) के रूप में नागरिकों के लिए समान आचार संहिता (यूनिफॉर्म सिविल कोड) का भी सुझाव देता है.[57] हालांकि अबतक इसे लागू नहीं किया गया है क्योंकि दिशानिर्देशक सिद्धांत संवैधानिक रूप से अप्रवर्तनीय हैं. सुप्रीम कोर्ट ने आगे कहा है कि समान आचार संहिता को एक बार में ही लागू करना देश की अखंडता के लिए नुकसानदायक हो सकता है, और परिवर्तन को धीरे-धीरे करके लाना चाहिए (पन्नालाल बंसीलाल बनाम आंध्र प्रदेश राज्य, 1996 ).[58] महर्षि अवधेश बनाम भारत संघ (1994) में सर्वोच्च न्यायलय ने एक समान आचार संहिता लाने के लिए सरकार के खिलाफ एक रिट ऑफ मैंडेमस (परमादेश) को ख़ारिज कर दिया था, और इस प्रकार इसको लाने की जिम्मेदारी विधायिका पर डाल दी.[59] प्रमुख धार्मिक समुदाय जो भारत में आधारित नहीं हैं, वे अभी भी अपने निजी कानूनों का ही पालन कर रहे हैं. जहां मुसलमानों, ईसाइयों, पारसियों, और यहूदियों के उनके स्वयं के निजी कानून हैं; हिंदू, जैन, बौद्ध, और सिख लोग 'हिंदू पर्सनल लॉ' नामक एक निजी कानून द्वारा शासित होते हैं. भारतीय संविधान के अनुच्छेद 25 (2) (बी) में कहा गया है कि हिंदुओं में "सिक्ख, जैन तथा बौद्ध धर्मं का पालन करने वाले व्यक्तियों" को भी शामिल किया जायेगा.[60] इसके अलावा हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम 1955, जैनियों, बौद्ध, तथा सिक्खों की क़ानूनी स्थिति को इस प्रकार परिभाषित करता है - क़ानूनी रूप से हिंदू परन्तु "धर्म के आधार पर हिंदू" नहीं.[61] भारत के धर्मनिरपेक्ष ("नागरिक") कानून के तहत आने वाला एकमात्र भारतीय धर्म ब्रह्मोइज्म है, जो 1872 के अधिनियम III से प्रारंभ होता है. [संपादित करें] पहलू धर्म भारतीयों के जीवन में प्रमुख भूमिका निभाता है.[62] रीति-रिवाज, पूजा, और अन्य धार्मिक गतिविधियां किसी भी व्यक्ति के जीवन में काफी महत्त्वपूर्ण होती हैं; सामाजिक जीवन में भी इनका प्रमुख स्थान रहता है. प्रत्येक व्यक्ति की धार्मिकता का स्तर भिन्न होता है; हाल के दशकों में भारतीय समाज में धार्मिक रूढ़िवाद तथा उसके पालन में काफी कमी आई है, खासकर शहर में रहने वाले युवाओं में. [संपादित करें] रीति-रिवाज गर्मी मानसून के दौरान उज्जैन में शिप्रा नदी के तट पर एक पूजा का प्रदर्शन. भारतीयों की एक विशाल संख्या दैनिक आधार पर कई रीति-रिवाजों का पालन करती है.[63] अधिकांश हिंदू अपने घर में ही धार्मिक रीति-रिवाजों का पालन करते हैं.[64] हालांकि, रीति-रिवाजों का पालन भिन्न-भिन्न क्षेत्रों, गावों, तथा व्यक्तियों के बीच काफी अलग हो सकता है. श्रद्धालु हिंदू जन कुछ कामों को दैनिक रूप से करते हैं, जैसे कि, सुबह-सुबह स्नान करने के बाद पूजा करना (जिसे आमतौर पर घर के किसी मंदिर में किया जाता है और सामान्यतः धूप-बत्ती जलाने के बाद भगवान की मूर्ति को भोग लगाया जाता है), धार्मिक ग्रंथों का पाठ करना, और देवताओं की स्तुति करना, आदि.[64] शुद्धता और प्रदूषण के बीच विभाजन, धार्मिक रीति-रिवाजों की एक उल्लेखनीय विशेषता है. धार्मिक कृत्यों में यह मानकर चला जाता है कि उसको करने वाले में कुछ अशुद्धि अथवा कलंक अवश्य मौजूद है, जिसे धार्मिक अनुष्ठान के दौरान या पहले समाप्त या दूर किया जाना चाहिए. जल द्वारा शुद्धीकरण, अधिकांश धार्मिक कृत्यों का एक अभिन्न अंग है.[64] अन्य विशेषताओं में शामिल हैं बलिदान के सद्प्रभाव में विश्वास तथा स्वयं को लायक बनाने की इच्छा, जिसे धीरे-धीरे सत्कर्मों और दान द्वारा प्राप्त किया जाता है और जो परलोक में होने वाले कष्टों को कम करने में मदद करता है.[64] श्रद्धालू मुसलमान मस्जिद द्वारा अजान दिए जाने पर निश्चित समय पर दिन में पांच बार नमाज अदा करते हैं. नमाज अदा करने के पहले उन्हें स्वयं को वज़ू द्वारा शुद्ध करना होता है, जिसमें शरीर के आमतौर पर खुले रहने वाले अंगों को धोना शामिल होता है. सच्चर समिति के एक ताजा अध्ययन में पाया गया कि 3-4% मुस्लिम बच्चे मदरसों में पढ़ते हैं.[65] आहार संबंधी आदतों पर धर्म का काफी प्रभाव पड़ता है. लगभग एक तिहाई भारतीय शाकाहारी हैं; बौद्ध धर्म के समर्थक अशोक के शासनकाल में इसको काफी प्रचार मिला.[66][67] शाकाहारी भोजन ईसाइयों तथा मुसलमानों के बीच अधिक प्रचलित नहीं है.[68] जैन धर्म की सभी संप्रदायों और परंपराओं में सभी भिक्षुओं तथा जन-साधारण के लिए शाकाहारी होना आवश्यक है. हिंदू धर्म में गोमांस खाना वर्जित है जबकि इस्लाम में सूअर का मांस खाना वर्जित है. [संपादित करें] रस्में एक हिंदू विवाह. जन्म, विवाह और मृत्यु जैसे अवसरों पर अक्सर काफी विशिष्ट प्रकार की धार्मिक रस्मों का पालन किया जाता है. हिंदू धर्म में जीवन-चक्र से संबंधित प्रमुख रस्मों में शामिल हैं अन्नप्राशन (बच्चे द्वारा पहली बार ठोस आहार का सेवन करना), उपनयनम (उच्च जाति के लड़कों में "जनेऊ" बांधने की रस्म), और श्राद्ध (मृतक परिजनों को श्रद्धांजलि अर्पित करना).[69][70] अधिकांश भारतीयों में, युवा जोड़े की सगाई तथा शादी की निश्चित तिथि और समय को माता-पिता द्वारा ज्योतिषियों के परामर्श से तय किया जाता है.[69] मुसलमान भी कई प्रकार के जीवन-चक्र से संबंधित रिवाजों का पालन करते हैं जो हिंदुओं, जैनियों, तथा बौद्धों से अलग होते हैं.[71] कई रस्में जीवन के शुरुआती दिनों से संबंधित होती हैं, जिनमें शामिल हैं, फुसफुसा कर प्रार्थना करना, प्रथम स्नान, और सिर की हजामत बनाना. धार्मिक शिक्षा की शुरुआत जल्द ही हो जाती है. लड़कों की खतना रस्म आमतौर पर जन्म के बाद की जाती है; कुछ परिवारों में इसे यौवन के शुरू होने के बाद ही किया जाता है.[71] शादी में पति द्वारा पत्नी को दहेज दिया जाता है और एक सामाजिक समारोह का आयोजन करके इस वैवाहिक अनुबंध को मान्यता प्रदान की जाती है.[71] मृतक व्यक्ति को दफ़नाने के तीन दिन बाद मित्र तथा परिजन एकत्र होकर दुखी परिवार को सांत्वना प्रदान करते हैं, कुरान को पढ़ते और सुनते हैं, और मृतक की आत्मा के लिए प्राथना करते हैं.[71] भारतीय इस्लाम, महान सूफी संतों की इबादत के लिए बनाई गयी दरगाहों को तवज्जो दिए जाने के कारण जाना जाता है.[71] [संपादित करें] तीर्थ इन्हें भी देखें: Hindu pilgrimage sites in India एवं Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India 2001, प्रयाग में महा कुंभ मेला जिसने दुनिया भर से सात करोड़ हिन्दुओं को अपनी ओर आकर्षित किया, जिसे धरती का सबसे बड़ी धार्मिक सभा मानी जाती है. मार थोमा चर्च द्वारा आयोजित किया गया मारामोन कन्वेंशन एशिया में सबसे बड़ा वार्षिक ईसाई सभा है भारत में कई धर्मों के तीर्थ स्थान मौजूद हैं. दुनिया भर के हिंदू इलाहाबाद, हरिद्वार, वाराणसी, और वृंदावन जैसे कई धार्मिक शहरों की महिमा को पहचानते हैं. प्रमुख मंदिर वाले वाले शहरों में शामिल हैं, पुरी, जहां प्रसिद्ध वैष्णव जगन्नाथ मंदिर है और प्रचलित रथ यात्रा निकाली जाती है; तिरुमाला-तिरुपति, जहां तिरुमाला वेंकटेश्वर मंदिर है; और कटरा, जहां वैष्णो देवी का मंदिर विराजमान है. हिमालय के पहाड़ों में स्थित बद्रीनाथ, केदारनाथ, गंगोत्री और यमुनोत्री शहरों को चार धाम तीर्थ यात्रा के नाम से जाना जाता है. प्रत्येक चार (बारह) साल में आयोजित होने वाला कुम्भ मेला हिंदुओं के पवित्रतम तीर्थों में से है; इसे बारी-बारी से इलाहबाद, हरिद्वार, नासिक, तथा उज्जैन में मनाया जाता है. बौद्ध धर्म के आठ महान स्थानों में से सात भारत में स्थित हैं. बोधगया, सारनाथ और कुशीनगर वे स्थान हैं जहां गौतम बुद्ध के जीवन की महत्वपूर्ण घटनाएं घटित हुई थीं. सांची में सम्राट अशोक द्वारा निर्मित एक बौद्ध स्तूप है. भारत में हिमालय की तलहटी में कई तिब्बती बौद्ध स्थलों का निर्माण किया गया है, जैसे कि रुमटेक मठ एवं धर्मशाला. मुसलमानों के लिए अजमेर में स्थित ख्वाजा मोइनुद्दीन चिश्ती की दरगाह शरीफ एक प्रमुख तीर्थ स्थान है. अन्य इस्लामी तीर्थों में शामिल हैं, फतेहपुर सीकरी में शेख सलीम चिश्ती का मकबरा, दिल्ली की जामा मस्जिद, और मुंबई की हाजी अली दरगाह. जैनियों के उल्लेखनीय तीर्थ स्थानों में शामिल हैं माउंट आबू के दिलवाड़ा मंदिर, पालिताना, पावापुरी, गिरनार, तथा श्रवणबेलगोला. अमृतसर स्थित हरमंदिर साहिब सिक्खों का सबसे पवित्र गुरुद्वारा है, जबकि स्वामीथोप में स्थित थलाईमईपथि, अय्यावाझी संप्रदाय के सदस्यों का प्रमुख तीर्थ स्थान है. दिल्ली में स्थित लोटस टेम्पल बहाई आस्था से जुड़े लोगों के लिए उपासना का एक प्रमुख स्थान है. [संपादित करें] त्यौहार मुख्य लेख : Public holidays in India धार्मिक त्योहारों को व्यापक रूप से मनाया जाता है और भारतीयों के जीवन में इनका महत्त्वपूर्ण स्थान होता है. भारत के धर्मनिरपेक्ष चरित्र को ध्यान में रखते हुए किसी भी धार्मिक त्यौहार को राष्ट्रीय छुट्टी का दर्जा प्रदान नहीं किया गया है. दीवाली, गणेश चतुर्थी, होली, दुर्गा पूजा, उगाडी, दशहरा, और पोंगल/संक्रांति भारत के सर्वाधिक लोकप्रिय हिंदू त्यौहार हैं. मुसलमानों में ईद-उल-फितर तथा ईद-उल-जुहा के त्योहारों को काफी व्यापक रूप से मनाया जाता है. कुछ उल्लेखनीय सिक्ख छुट्टियों में शामिल हैं, गुरु नानक का जन्मदिवस, बैसाखी, बंदी छोड़ दिवस (जिसे दिवाली भी कहा जाता है) और होला महोल्ला. क्रिसमस, और बुद्ध जयंती शेष धार्मिक समूहों की प्रमुख छुट्टियां हैं. कई त्योहारों को भारत के अधिकांश हिस्सों में मनाया जाता है, जबकि कई राज्यों तथा क्षेत्रों में धार्मिक तथा भाषाई आधार पर अपने स्थानीय त्यौहार भी होते हैं. उदाहरण के लिए, कुछ विशिष्ट मंदिरों या दरगाहों से संबंधित सूफी संतों के सम्मान में मनाये जाने वाले उत्सव तथा त्यौहार काफी आम हैं. मुहर्रम एक ऐसा अनूठा त्यौहार है जिसमें उत्सव नहीं मनाया जाता है; इसे 680 ई. में मुहम्मद के परपोते इमाम हुसैन की शोकाकुल स्मृति के रूप में मनाया जाता है. एक तजिया (हुसैन के मकबरे के समान बांस की एक प्रतिकृति) को पूरे शहर में घुमाया जाता है. मुहर्रम को भारतीय शिया इस्लाम के केन्द्र लखनऊ में काफी उत्साहपूर्वक मनाया जाता है.

esDefinitions Essays of Michel de Montaigne An essay has been defined in a variety of ways. One definition is a "prose composition with a focused subject of discussion" or a "long, systematic discourse".[1] It is difficult to define the genre into which essays fall. Aldous Huxley, a leading essayist, gives guidance on the subject.[2] He notes that "[l]ike the novel, the essay is a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything, usually on a certain topic. By tradition, almost by definition, the essay is a short piece, and it is therefore impossible to give all things full play within the limits of a single essay". He points out that "a collection of essays can cover almost as much ground, and cover it almost as thoroughly, as can a long novel"--he gives Montaigne's Third Book as an example. Huxley argues on several occasions that "essays belong to a literary species whose extreme variability can be studied most effectively within a three-poled frame of reference". Huxley's three poles are: Personal and the autobiographical essays: these use "fragments of reflective autobiography" to "look at the world through the keyhole of anecdote and description". Objective and factual: in these essays, the authors "do not speak directly of themselves, but turn their attention outward to some literary or scientific or political theme". Abstract-universal: these essays "make the best ... of all the three worlds in which it is possible for the essay to exist". The word essay derives from the French infinitive essayer, "to try" or "to attempt". In English essay first meant "a trial" or "an attempt", and this is still an alternative meaning. The Frenchman Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) was the first author to describe his work as essays; he used the term to characterize these as "attempts" to put his thoughts into writing, and his essays grew out of his commonplacing.[3] Inspired in particular by the works of Plutarch, a translation of whose Oeuvres Morales (Moral works) into French had just been published by Jacques Amyot, Montaigne began to compose his essays in 1572; the first edition, entitled Essais, was published in two volumes in 1580. For the rest of his life he continued revising previously published essays and composing new ones. Francis Bacon's essays, published in book form in 1597, 1612, and 1625, were the first works in English that described themselves as essays. Ben Jonson first used the word essayist in English in 1609, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. [edit] History The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (January 2011) [edit] Europe English essayists included Robert Burton (1577–1640) and Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682). In Italy, Baldassare Castiglione wrote about courtly manners in his essay Il libro del cortegiano. In the 17th century, the Jesuit Baltasar Gracián wrote about the theme of wisdom.[4] During the Age of Enlightenment, essays were a favored tool of polemicists who aimed at convincing readers of their position; they also featured heavily in the rise of periodical literature, as seen in the works of Joseph Addison, Richard Steele and Samuel Johnson. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Edmund Burke and Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote essays for the general public. The early 19th century in particular saw a proliferation of great essayists in English – William Hazlitt, Charles Lamb, Leigh Hunt and Thomas de Quincey all penned numerous essays on diverse subjects. In the 20th century, a number of essayists tried to explain the new movements in art and culture by using essays (e.g., T.S. Eliot). Whereas some essayists used essays for strident political themes, Robert Louis Stevenson and Willa Cather wrote lighter essays. Virginia Woolf, Edmund Wilson, and Charles du Bos wrote literary criticism essays.[4] [edit] Japan Main article: Zuihitsu As with the novel, essays existed in Japan several centuries before they developed in Europe, with a genre of essays known as zuihitsu – loosely connected essays and fragmented ideas – having existed since almost the beginnings of Japanese literature. Many of the most noted early works of Japanese literature are in this genre. Notable examples include The Pillow Book (c. 1000) by court lady Sei Shōnagon, and Tsurezuregusa (1330) by Japanese Buddhist monk Yoshida Kenkō being particularly renowned. Kenkō described his short writings similarly to Montaigne, referring to them as "nonsensical thoughts" written in "idle hours". Another noteworthy difference from Europe is that women have traditionally written in Japan, though the more formal, Chinese-influenced writings of male writers were more prized at the time. [edit] As an educational tool University students, like these students doing research at a university library, are often assigned essays as a way to get them to analyze what they have read. In countries like the United States, essays have become a major part of a formal education. Secondary students in these countries are taught structured essay formats to improve their writing skills, and essays are often used by universities in these countries in selecting applicants (see admissions essay). In both secondary and tertiary education, essays are used to judge the mastery and comprehension of material. Students are asked to explain, comment on, or assess a topic of study in the form of an essay. During some courses, university students will often be required to complete one or more essays that are prepared over several weeks or months. In addition, in fields such as the humanities and social sciences,[citation needed] mid-term and end of term examinations often require students to write a short essay in two or three hours. In these countries, so-called academic essays, which may also be called "papers", are usually more formal than literary ones.[citation needed] They may still allow the presentation of the writer's own views, but this is done in a logical and factual manner, with the use of the first person often discouraged. Longer academic essays (often with a word limit of between 2,000 and 5,000 words)[citation needed] are often more discursive. They sometimes begin with a short summary analysis of what has previously been written on a topic, which is often called a literature review.[citation needed] Longer essays may also contain an introductory page in which words and phrases from the title are tightly defined. Most academic institutions[citation needed] will require that all substantial facts, quotations, and other porting material used in an essay be referenced in a bibliography or works cited page at the end of the text. This scholarly convention allows others (whether teachers or fellow scholars) to understand the basis of the facts and quotations used to support the essay's argument, and thereby help to evaluate to what extent the argument is supported by evidence, and to evaluate the quality of that evidence. The academic essay tests the student's ability to present their thoughts in an organized way and is designed to test their intellectual capabilities.[citation needed] One essay guide of a US university makes the distinction between research papers and discussion papers. The guide states that a "research paper is intended to uncover a wide variety of sources on a given topic". As such, research papers "tend to be longer and more inclusive in their scope and with the amount of information they deal with." While discussion papers "also include research, ...they tend to be shorter and more selective in their approach...and more analytical and critical". Whereas a research paper would typically quote "a wide variety of sources", a discussion paper aims to integrate the material in a broader fashion.[5] One of the challenges facing US universities is that in some cases, students may submit essays which have been purchased from an essay mill (or "paper mill") as their own work. An "essay mill" is a ghostwriting service that sells pre-written essays to university and college students. Since plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty or academic fraud, universities and colleges may investigate papers suspected to be from an essay mill by using Internet plagiarism detection software, which compares essays against a database of known mill essays and by orally testing students on the contents of their papers. [edit] Forms and styles This section describes the different forms and styles of essay writing. These forms and styles are used by a range of authors, including university students and professional essayists. [edit] Cause and effect The defining features of a "cause and effect" essay are causal chains that connect from a cause to an effect, careful language, and chronological or emphatic order. A writer using this rhetorical method must consider the subject, determine the purpose, consider the audience, think critically about different causes or consequences, consider a thesis statement, arrange the parts, consider the language, and decide on a conclusion.[6] [edit] Classification and division Classification is the categorization of objects into a larger whole while division is the breaking of a larger whole into smaller parts.[7] [edit] Compare and contrast Compare and contrast essays are characterized by a basis for comparison, points of comparison, and analogies. It is grouped by object (chunking) or by point (sequential). Comparison highlights the similarities between two or more similar objects while contrasting highlights the differences between two or more objects. When writing a compare/contrast essay, writers need to determine their purpose, consider their audience, consider the basis and points of comparison, consider their thesis statement, arrange and develop the comparison, and reach a conclusion. Compare and contrast is arranged emphatically.[8] [edit] Descriptive Descriptive writing is characterized by sensory details, which appeal to the physical senses, and details that appeal to a reader’s emotional, physical, or intellectual sensibilities. Determining the purpose, considering the audience, creating a dominant impression, using descriptive language, and organizing the description are the rhetorical choices to be considered when using a description. A description is usually arranged spatially but can also be chronological or emphatic. The focus of a description is the scene. Description uses tools such as denotative language, connotative language, figurative language, metaphor, and simile to arrive at a dominant impression.[9] One university essay guide states that "descriptive writing says what happened or what another author has discussed; it provides an account of the topic".[10] [edit] Dialectic In the dialectic form of essay, which is commonly used in Philosophy, the writer makes a thesis and argument, then objects to their own argument (with a counterargument), but then counters the counterargument with a final and novel argument. This form benefits from being more open-minded while countering a possible flaw that some may present.[11] [edit] Exemplification An exemplification essay is characterized by a generalization and relevant, representative, and believable examples including anecdotes. Writers need to consider their subject, determine their purpose, consider their audience, decide on specific examples, and arrange all the parts together when writing an exemplification essay.[12] Malthus' Essay on the Principle of Population [edit] History (thesis) A history essay, sometimes referred to as a thesis essay, will describe an argument or claim about one or more historical events and will support that claim with evidence, arguments and references. The text makes it clear to the reader why the argument or claim is as such.[13] [edit] Narrative A narrative uses tools such as flashbacks, flash-forwards, and transitions that often build to a climax. The focus of a narrative is the plot. When creating a narrative, authors must determine their purpose, consider their audience, establish their point of view, use dialogue, and organize the narrative. A narrative is usually arranged chronologically.[14] [edit] Critical A critical essay is an argumentative piece of writing, aimed at presenting objective analysis of the subject matter, narrowed down to a single topic. The main idea of all the criticism is to provide an opinion either of positive or negative implication. As such, a critical essay requires research and analysis, strong internal logic and sharp structure. Each argument should be supported with sufficient evidence, relevant to the point. [edit] Other logical structures The logical progression and organizational structure of an essay can take many forms. Understanding how the movement of thought is managed through an essay has a profound impact on its overall cogency and ability to impress. A number of alternative logical structures for essays have been visualized as diagrams, making them easy to implement or adapt in the construction of an argument.[15] [edit] Magazine or newspaper Essays often appear in magazines, especially magazines with an intellectual bent, such as The Atlantic and Harpers. Magazine and newspaper essays use many of the essay types described in the section on forms and styles (e.g., descriptive essays, narrative essays, etc.). Some newspapers also print essays in the op-ed section. An 1895 cover of Harpers, a US magazine that prints a number of essays per issue. [edit] Employment Employment essays detailing experience in a certain occupational field are required when applying for some jobs, especially government jobs in the United States. Essays known as Knowledge Skills and Executive Core Qualifications are required when applying to certain US federal government positions. A KSA, or Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities, is a series of narrative statements that are required when applying to Federal government job openings in the United States. KSAs are used along with resumes to determine who the best applicants are when several candidates qualify for a job. The knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for the successful performance of a position are contained on each job vacancy announcement. KSAs are brief and focused essays about one's career and educational background that presumably qualify one to perform the duties of the position being applied for. An Executive Core Qualification, or ECQ, is a narrative statement that is required when applying to Senior Executive Service positions within the US Federal government. Like the KSAs, ECQs are used along with resumes to determine who the best applicants are when several candidates qualify for a job. The Office of Personnel Management has established five executive core qualifications that all applicants seeking to enter the Senior Executive Service must demonstrate. [edit] Non-literary types [edit] Visual Arts In the visual arts, an essay is a preliminary drawing or sketch upon which a final painting or sculpture is based, made as a test of the work's composition (this meaning of the term, like several of those following, comes from the word essay's meaning of "attempt" or "trial"). [edit] Music In the realm of music, composer Samuel Barber wrote a set of "Essays for Orchestra," relying on the form and content of the music to guide the listener's ear, rather than any extra-musical plot or story. [edit] Film Film essays (or "cinematic essays") consist of the evolution of a theme or an idea rather than a plot per se; or the film literally being a cinematic accompaniment to a narrator reading an essay. From another perspective, an essay film could be defined as a documentary film visual basis combined with a form of commentary that contains elements of self-portrait (rather than autobiography), where the signature (rather than the life-story) of the filmmaker is apparent. The cinematic essay often blends documentary, fiction, and experimental film making using a tones and editing styles.[16] The genre is not well-defined but might include works of early Soviet parliamentarians like Dziga Vertov, present-day filmmakers like Chris Marker, Agnès Varda, Michael Moore (Roger and Me, Bowling for Columbine and Fahrenheit 9/11), Errol Morris (The Thin Blue Line), or Morgan Spurlock (Supersize Me: A Film of Epic Proportions). Jean-Luc Godard describes his recent work as "film-essays".[17] Two filmmakers whose work was the antecedent to the cinematic essay include George Meliès and Bertolt Brecht. Georges Meliès did a film about the coronation of Edward VII in 1902 which mixes actual footage with shots of a recreation of the event. Bertolt Brecht was a playwright who experimented with film and incorporated film projections into some of his plays.[16] David Winks Gray's article "The essay film in action" states that the "essay film became an identifiable form of film making in the 1950s and ’60s". He states that since that time, essay films have tended to be "on the margins" of the film making world. Essay films have a "peculiar searching, questioning tone" which is "between documentary and fiction" but without "fitting comfortably" into either genre. Gray notes that just like written essays, essay films "tend to marry the personal voice of a guiding narrator (often the director) with a wide swath of other voices".[18] The University of Wisconsin Cinematheque website echoes some of Gray's comments; it calls film essays an "intimate and allusive" genre that "catches filmmakers in a pensive mood, ruminating on the margins between fiction and documentary" in a manner that is "refreshingly inventive, playful, and idiosyncratic".[19]

500 bikes annually, rising to a peak of 32,000 in 1913. The engines of the Indian Single were built by the Aurora Firm in Illinois under license from the Hendee Mfg. Co. until 1906.
[edit]
Competitive successes

Indian 1911

In 1905, Indian built its first V-twin factory racer, and in following years made a strong showing in racing and record-breaking. In 1907 the company introduced the first street version V-twin and a roadster styled after the factory racer. The roadster can be distinguished from the racers by the presence of twist grip linkages.[4][verification needed] One of the firm's most famous riders was Erwin "Cannonball" Baker, who set many long-distance records. In 1914, he rode an Indian across America, from San Diego to New York, in a record 11 days, 12 hours and ten minutes. Baker's mount in subsequent years was the Powerplus, a side-valve V-twin, which was introduced in 1916. Its 61ci (1000 cc), 42 degree V-twin engine was more powerful and quieter than previous designs, giving a top speed of 60 mph (96 km/h). The Powerplus was highly successful, both as a roadster and as the basis for racing bikes. It remained in production with few changes until 1924.

Competition success played a big part in Indian's rapid growth and spurred technical innovation, as well. One of the American firm's best early results came in the Isle of Man TT in 1911, when Indian riders Oliver Cyril Godfrey, Franklin and Moorehouse finished first, second and third. Indian star Jake DeRosier set several speed records both in America and at Brooklands in England, and won an estimated 900 races on dirt and board track racing.[5] He left Indian for Excelsior and died in 1913, aged 33, of injuries sustained in a board track race crash with Charles "Fearless" Balke, who later became Indian's top rider.[5] Work at the Indian factory was stopped while DeRosier's funeral procession passed.[5]

Oscar Hedstrom left Indian in 1913 after disagreements with the Board of Directors regarding dubious practices to inflate the company's stock values.[6] George Hendee resigned in 1916.[7]
[edit]
World War I

As the US entered World War I, Indian unnecessarily sold most of its Powerplus line in 1917 and 1918 to the United States government, starving its network of dealers. This blow to domestic availability of the motorcycles led to a loss of dealers from which Indian never quite recovered.[8] While the motorcycles were popular in the military, post-war demand was then taken up by other manufacturers to whom many of the previously loyal Indian dealers turned. While Indian shared in the business boom of the 1920s, it had lost its Number One position in the US market to Harley-Davidson.
[edit]
Inter-war era – Scouts, Chiefs, and Fours

Indian Scouts in police service, 1920s

The Scout and Chief V-twins, introduced in the early 1920s, became the Springfield firm's most successful models. Designed by Charles B. Franklin, the middleweight Scout and larger Chief shared a 42-degree V-twin engine layout. Both models gained a reputation for strength and reliability.

1939 Indian Dispatch Tow, 3-wheeler

In 1930, Indian merged with Du Pont Motors.[9] DuPont Motors founder E. Paul DuPont ceased production of duPont automobiles and concentrated the company's resources on Indian.[9] DuPont's paint industry connections resulted in no fewer than 24 color options being offered in 1934. Models of that era featured Indian's famous head-dress logo on the gas tank. Indian's huge Springfield factory was known as the Wigwam, and native American imagery was much used in advertising.

In 1940, Indian sold nearly as many motorcycles as its major rival, Harley-Davidson. At the time, Indian represented the only true American-made heavyweight cruiser alternative to Harley-Davidson. During this time, the company also manufactured other products such as aircraft engines, bicycles, boat motors and air conditioners.
[edit]
Indian Chief

1928 Indian Big Chief with sidecar

The first 1922 model Chief had a 1,000 cc (61 cubic inches) engine based on that of the Powerplus; a year later the engine was enlarged to 1,200 cc (73 cubic inches). Numerous improvements were made over the years, including adoption of a front brake in 1928.

In 1940, all models were fitted with the large skirted fenders that became an Indian trademark, and the Chief gained a new sprung frame that was superior to rival Harley's unsprung rear end.[10] The 1940s Chiefs were handsome and comfortable machines, capable of 85 mph (137 km/h) in standard form and over 100 mph (160 km/h) when tuned, although their increased weight hampered acceleration.

The 1948 Chief had a 74 cubic inch engine, hand shift and foot clutch. While one handlebar grip controlled the throttle the other was a manual spark advance.

In 1950, the V-twin engine was enlarged to 1,300 cc (79 cubic inches) and telescopic forks were adopted. But Indian's financial problems meant that few bikes were built. Production of the Chief ended in 1953.
[edit]
Indian Scout

1920 Indian Scout
Main article: Indian Scout (motorcycle)
See also: Indian 101 Scout

The Indian Scout was built from 1920 to 1949. It rivaled the Chief as Indian's most important model.
[edit]
Indian Four

1928 Indian 402

Indian purchased the ownership of the name, rights, and production facilities of the Ace Motor Corporation in 1927. Production was moved to Springfield and the motorcycle was marketed as the Indian Ace for one year.[11][12]

In 1928, the Indian Ace was replaced by the Indian 401, a development of the Ace designed by Arthur O. Lemon, former Chief Engineer at Ace, who was employed by Indian when they bought Ace.[13] The Ace's leading-link forks and central coil spring were replaced by Indian's trailing-link forks and quarter-elliptic leaf spring.[12][14]

By 1929, the Indian 402 would have a stronger twin-downtube frame based on that of the 101 Scout and a sturdier five-bearing crankshaft than the Ace, which had a three-bearing crankshaft.[13][15]

1939 Indian 4, in the "World's Fair" color scheme, in commemoration of the 1939 New York World's Fair. On display at Clark's Trading Post, Lincoln, New Hampshire.

Despite the low demand for luxury motorcycles during the Great Depression, Indian not only continued production of the Four, but continued to develop the motorcycle. One of the less popular versions of the Four was the "upside down" engine on the 1936-1937 models. While earlier (and later) Fours had inlet-over-exhaust (IOE) cylinder heads with overhead inlet valves and side exhaust valves, the 1936-1937 Indian Four had a unique EOI cylinder head, with the positions reversed. In theory, this would improve fuel vaporization, and the new engine was more powerful. However, the new system made the cylinder head, and the rider's inseam, very hot. This, along with an exhaust valvetrain that required frequent adjustment, caused sales to drop. The addition of dual carburetors in 1937 did not revive interest. The design was returned to the original configuration in 1938.[13][16][17]

Like the Chief, the Four was given large, skirted fenders and plunger rear suspension in 1940. In 1941, the 18-inch wheels of previous models were replaced with 16-inch wheels with balloon tires.[13]

The Indian Four was discontinued in 1942.[13][18] Recognition of the historical significance of the 1940 four-cylinder model was made with an August 2006 United States Postal Service 39-cent stamp issue, part of a four panel set entitled American Motorcycles.[19]
[edit]
World War II

1942 Indian Scout 500, the 741, used by the US Army.

Chiefs, Scouts, and Junior Scouts were all used in small numbers for various purposes by the United States Army in World War II, and extensively by overseas Commonwealth military forces under the Lend/Lease Program. However, none of these could unseat the Harley-Davidson WLA as the motorcycle mainly used by the US Army. The early version was based on the 750 cc (46 cu in) Scout 640 and compared directly with Harley's offer, the WLA, but was either too expensive or heavy, or a combination of both. Indians eventual offer, the 500 cc (31 cu in) 741B, was underpowered and was not selected to gain a US Military contract. Indian also offered a version based on the 1,200 cc (73 cu in) Chief, the 344. Approximately 1,000 experimental versions mounting the 750 cc motor sideways and utilising shaft drive, as on a modern Moto Guzzi, the 841, was also tried.
[edit]
Indian 841
Main article: Indian 841

During World War II, the US Army requested experimental motorcycle designs suitable for desert fighting.[20] In response to this request, Indian designed and built the 841. Approximately 1,000 841 models were built.

The Indian 841 was heavily inspired by the BMW R71 motorcycle used by the German Army at the time, as was its competitor, the Harley-Davidson XA.[21] However, unlike the XA, the 841 was not a copy of the R71. Although its tubular frame, plunger rear suspension, and shaft drive were similar to the BMW's, the 841 was different from the BMW in several aspects, most noticeably so with its 90-degree longitudinal-crankshaft V-twin engine and girder fork.[20][21]

The Indian 841 and the Harley-Davidson XA were both tested by the Army, but neither motorcycle was adopted for wider military use. It was determined that the Jeep was more suitable for the roles and missions for which these motorcycles had been intended.[20][22]
[edit]
Post-war decline and demise

1950 Indian Chief Black Hawk

In 1945, a group headed by Ralph B. Rogers purchased a controlling interest of the company.[23] On November 1, 1945, duPont formally turned the operations of Indian over to Rogers.[9]

Under Rogers' control, Indian discontinued the Scout and began to manufacture lightweight motorcycles such as the 149 Arrow, the Super Scout 249, both introduced in 1949, and the 250 Warrior, introduced in 1950.[24] These bikes suffered from poor quality and a lack of development. Production of traditional Indians was extremely limited in 1949, and no 1949 Chiefs are known to exist. Manufacture of all products was halted in 1953.

[edit]
Corporate successors
[edit]
Rebadged imported products

Brockhouse Engineering acquired the rights to the Indian name after it went under in 1953. They imported Royal Enfield motorcycles from England, mildly customized them in the US depending on the model and sold them as Indians from 1955 to 1960.[23] Almost all Royal Enfield models had a corresponding Indian model in the USA. The models were Indian Chief, Trailblazer, Apache (all three were 700 twins), Tomahawk (500 twin), Woodsman (500 single), Westerner (500 single), Hounds Arrow (250 single), Fire Arrow (250 single), Lance (150 2-stroke single) and a 3-wheeled Patrol Car (350 cc single).[25]

In 1960, the Indian name was bought by AMC of England. Royal Enfield being their competition, they abruptly stopped all Enfield-based Indian models except the 700 cc Chief. Their plan was to sell Matchless and AJS motorcycles badged as Indians. However, the venture ended when AMC itself went into liquidation in 1962.
[edit]
Floyd Clymer imports, 1963-1977

1972 Indian MM-5A minibike

From the 1960s, entrepreneur Floyd Clymer began using the Indian name, apparently without purchasing it from the last known legitimate trademark holder. He attached it to imported motorcycles, commissioned to Italian ex-pilot and engineer Leopoldo Tartarini, owner of Italjet Moto, to manufacture Minarelli-engined 50 cc minibikes under the Indian Papoose name. These were so successful that Clymer also commissioned Tartarini to build full-size Indian motorcycles based on the Italjet Grifon design, but fitted firstly with Royal Enfield Interceptor 750 cc parallel-twin engines, then with Velocette 500 cc single-cylinder Thruxton engines.[citation needed]

After Clymer's death in 1970 his widow sold the alleged Indian trademark to Los Angeles attorney Alan Newman, who continued to import minicycles made by ItalJet, and later manufactured in a wholly owned assembly plant located in Taipei (Taiwan). Several models with engine displacement between 50 cc and 175 cc were produced, mostly fitted with Italian two-stroke engines made either by Italjet or Franco Morini, but the fortunes of this venture didn't last long. By 1975, sales were dwindling, and in January 1977, the company was declared bankrupt.
[edit]
Other attempts, 1977-1999

The right to the brand name passed through a succession of owners and became a subject of competing claims in the 1980s. By 1992, the Clymer claim to the copyright had been transferred to Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Co. Inc. of Berlin, a corporation headed by Philip S. Zanghi.[26]

In June 1994, in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Wayne Baughman, president of Indian Motorcycle Manufacturing Incorporated, presented, started, and rode a prototype Indian Century V-Twin Chief. Baughman had made previous statements about building new motorcycles under the Indian brand but this was his first appearance with a working motorcycle.[27]

Neither Zanghi nor Baughman began production of motorcycles.[28] In August 1997, Zanghi was convicted of securites fraud, tax evasion, and money laundering.[29]

In January 1998, Eller Industries was given permission to purchase the Indian copyright from the receivers of the previous owner. Eller Industries hired Roush Industries to design the engine for the motorcyle, and was negotiating with the Cow Creek Band of Umpqua Tribe of Indians to build a motorcycle factory on their tribal land.[30] Three renderings, one each of a cruiser, a sport cruiser, and a sport bike, on frames specified by suspension designer James Parker, were shown to the motorcycling press in February 1998.[31]

Eller Industries arranged a public unveiling of the cruiser prototype for November 1998, but was prevented from showing the prototype by a restraining order from the receiver, who said that Eller had failed to meet the terms of its obligations.[32] The contract was withdrawn after the company missed its deadline to close the deal and could not agree with the receiver to an extension on the deadline.[33] Other conditions, including payment of administrative costs and presenting a working prototype, were also not met by Eller Industries. Based on this, a Federal bankruptcy court in Denver, Colorado, allowed the sale of the copyright to IMCOA Licencing America Inc. in December 1998.[34]
[edit]
Indian Motorcycle Company of America (1999–2003)

The Indian Motorcycle Company of America was formed from the merger of nine companies, including manufacturer California Motorcycle Company (CMC) and IMCOA Licensing America Inc., which was awarded the Indian trademark by the Federal District Court of Colorado in 1998.[35] The new company began manufacturing motorcycles in 1999 at the former CMC's facilities in Gilroy, California. The first "Gilroy Indian" model was a new design called the Chief. Scout and Spirit models were also manufactured from 2001. These bikes were initially made with off-the-shelf S&S engines, but used the 100-cubic-inch (1,600 cc) Powerplus engine design from 2002 to 2003. The Indian Motorcycle Corporation went into bankruptcy and ceased all production operations in Gilroy on September 19, 2003.[36]
[edit]
Indian Motorcycle Company (since 2006)
Indian Motorcycle Company
Type Subsidiary
Headquarters Medina, Minnesota, USA
Key people Stephen Julius
(chairman)
Steve Heese(president)
Products Motorcycle, Accessories, Apparel, and Gifts
Employees 50


Stellican Indian in characteristic Indian red colour in Brighton (UK)

On July 20, 2006, the newly formed Indian Motorcycle Company, owned largely by Stellican Limited, a London-based private equity firm, announced its new home in Kings Mountain, North Carolina, where it has restarted the Indian motorcycle brand,[37] manufacturing Indian Chief motorcycles in limited numbers, with a focus on exclusivity rather than performance, like a 'luxury' watch. Starting out exactly where the defunct Gilroy IMC operation left off in 2003 all of the new models are continuation models based on the new series of motorcycles developed in 1999. The 2009 Indian Chief incorporated a redesigned 105-cubic-inch (1,720 cc) Powerplus V-twin powertrain with electronic closed-loop sequential-port fuel injection,[38] and a charging system providing increased capacity for the electronic fuel injection.

Stellican Indian at the Ace Cafe, London (UK)

In April 2011, Polaris Industries, the off-road and leisure vehicle maker and parent-company of Victory motorcycles, announced its intention to acquiring Indian Motorcycle. Indian's production facilities were moved to Spirit Lake, Iowa, and production began there on August 5, 2011.[39]
[edit]
Land speed records

Between 1962 and 1967, Burt Munro from New Zealand used a modified 1920s Indian Scout to set a number of land speed re

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